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SPOT-LIGHT POST
Electron Capture Through Beta (β) Radioactivity

Beta decay occurs when, in a nucleus with too many protons or too many neutrons, one of the protons or neutrons is transformed into the other. In beta minus decay, a neutron decays into a proton, an electron, and an antineutrino: n Æ p + e - +. In beta plus decay, a proton decays into a neutron, a positron, and a neutrino: p Æ n + e+ +n. Both reactions occur because in different regions of the Chart of the Nuclides (see the below image), one or the other will move the product closer to the region of stability.

Image source:Wikimedia Commons
License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported


These particular reactions take place because conservation laws are obeyed. Electric charge conservation requires that if an electrically neutral neutron becomes a positively charged proton, an electrically negative particle (in this case, an electron) must also be produced. Similarly, conservation of lepton number requires that if a neutron (lepton number = 0) decays into a proton (lepton number = 0) and an electron (lepton number = 1), a particle with a lepton number of -1 (in this case an antineutrino) must also be produced. The leptons emitted in beta decay did not exist in the nucleus before the decay–they are created at the instant of the decay.



Electron capture is concurrent to beta plus decay (i.e. in nuclei with too few neutrons). Instead of conversion of a proton into a neutron with a beta particle being emitted together with a neutrino, the proton captures an electron from the K shell: p + e --> n + ν.

The energy of the emitted beta particles is around 3 MeV, while their speed approximately corresponds to the speed of light.
Beta particles can penetrate matter. They lose energy in collisions with the atoms. There are actually two processes involved:
a beta particle transfers a small fraction of its energy to the struck atom
a beta particle is deflected from its original path by each collision and, since the change in the velocity leads to the emission of electromagnetic radiation, some of the energy is lost in the form of low-energy x-rays.
Notable radionuclides that undergo electron capture include 123I, 67Ga, 201Th, and 111In.
For example, 123iodine undergoes electron capture to preduce 123tellurium in excited state. Read more...➔




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In the conventional view, "stuff" is made of atoms. The atoms are made of electrons, protons and neutrons. High Energy Physics deals with the question of what the electrons, protons and neutrons are made of. It is called "high energy" because experimentally one needs very high energy probes to try to take these "elementary particles" apart. By our current understanding, these elementary particles are excitations of the quantum fields that also govern their interactions.

By probing into the most basic componets of matter and radiation , Particle Physics (or the High Energy Physics) has discovered that these electrons , protons and neutrons are constituted of other "further more elementary" particles which are categorized into quarks, leptons, and bosons.

It involves deploying and calibrating particle accelerators , colliders and detetectors at various places in the world to proble into the deepest realms of matter. By exploring the most basic nature of space and time itself, it is increasing our knowledge of the universe enabling us to reach the farther most reaches of the cosmos thus revealing the purview of our existence here on earth.

It has uplifted the life of the humanity since the research work done in this field directly and indirectly influences various other braches of sciences like Quantum Physics, Nuclear Physics, AstroPhysics, Astronomy, Photonics and various other streams of engineering sciences and in turn, these sciences help the humanity in calibraing excellent useful innovations , thus improving the life on earth to thrive in various fields.

Research work in High Energy Physics involves the combined efforts of some of the largest scientific collaborations in the world, using some of the most sensitive detectors in the world, at some of the largest scientific machines in the world.

The Standard Model of the Particle Physics consists of six quarks, six leptons, four gauge bosons, and one scalar boson (the Higgs boson), which interact through three interactions (strong force, weak force, and electromagnetism).

Contemporary Particle Physics also aims to explain the origin of mass and to converge all the various theories of the fundamental forces including gravity into a single unified framework which is rather called as "a theory of everthing".

High Energy Phsysics has found that the "normal" baryonic matter makes up only 4% of the universe's total energy and consequently the study of dark matter and dark energy has begun to take a great importance in the recent times.



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➤ Building Blocks Of The Universe

what is the universe made of? The short answer is that the universe is built of four substances: radiation, baryonic matter, dark matter and dark energy.

What are these substances?

1. Radiation: This consists of photons and neutrinos and makes up 10-3% of the total energy.

2. Baryonic matter: This is the ordinary, familiar material including all of the chemical elements and compounds that we find in planets, stars, gas clouds and plasmas. Baryonic matter only comprises about 4% of the universe's total entire energy.

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➤ Black Holes And Curved Spacetime

Most stars end their lives as white dwarfs or neutron stars. When a very massive star collapses at the end of its life, however, not even the mutual repulsion between densely packed neutrons can support the core against its own weight. If the remaining mass of the star’s core is more than about three times that of the Sun (\(M_{\text{Sun}}\)), our theories predict that no known force can stop it from collapsing forever! Gravity simply overwhelms all other forces and crushes the core until it occupies an infinitely small volume. A star in which this occurs may become one of the strangest objects ever predicted by theory—a black hole.

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➤ Electron - Higgs Field Interaction

The Higgs boson (a particle of the Higgs field) is a particle associated with the electroweak-symmetry breaking mechanism which is an inmportant aspect of quantum physics and is a vital component of the Standard Model of particle physics. It is believed that all fundamental particles in the known Universe that have mass — for example electrons, or the quarks that live inside protons and neutrons — acquire this mass as a result of interacting with an omnipresent field through Higgs bosons. Massless particles, such as photons, pass through the field without interacting with it.

Everything that we can touch and see and feel has substance. All this substance that makes up our Universe is courtesy of the familiar atom, which gives us all the matter around us. An atom is comprised of lightweight electrons orbiting and bound to a bulky nucleus of protons and neutrons, which themselves are made of quarks.

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➤ Matter - Antimatter Symmetry

According to the Standard Model of elementary particle physics, to each particle exists an antiparticle that is supposed to behave exactly the same way. Thus anti-particles which make up the anti-matter would observe the same laws of physics in general, as the matter particles do. This phenomena is, however, difficult to prove, since it is almost impossible to perform measurements on antimatter: whenever an antiparticle meets is matter-counterpart, both particles annihilate, accompanied by the creation of energy.

A recent research in Quantum Optics has found a way to overcome this hurdle: an experiment was carried out by trapping an antiproton inside a helium atom. As due to a new cooling technique the helium atoms are almost at rest, high precision spectroscopy measurements are made possible. For the mass of the antiproton relative to the electron, the outcome of the research has achieved the unprecedented accuracy of 800 parts per trillion.

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Nuclear physics is the study of atomic nuclei, their constituents, and the interactions that hold them together. Nuclei are the massive cores at the center of atoms and are made up of protons and neutrons (which are called hadrons) which determine the element identity and isotope, and some of the radioactive processes . Nuclei make up most of the visible mass around us, and are critical to the inner workings of stars, the origin of chemical elements, and the early universe. The hadrons themselves are composites of more fundamental particles known as quarks and gluons and their interactions lead to the strong nuclear force that provides the binding force to hold protons and neutrons near each other. This is mathematically described in the theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD).

More than 99% of the mass of the visible matter in the universe is nuclear matter. Protons and neutrons are the building blocks of atomic nuclei. Exotic forms of nuclear matter were present in the early universe and continue to exist today in neutron stars. Nuclear fusion processes at the core of our Sun are the source of the vast energy flow that sustains life on Earth. Nuclear fusion in stars and nuclear processes at the end of stellar life have formed the rich spectrum of elements we observe in nature.

Experimental nuclear physics drives innovation in scientific instrumentation and has a far-reaching impact on research in other fields of science and engineering. From medicine— x-ray and magnetic resonance imaging, radiation therapies for cancer treatment—to materials science— x-ray lithography and neutron scattering—to propulsion and energy production—nuclear physicists have changed our world. The current research in nuclear physics is not only unraveling fundamental questions about matter and energy but also enabling a host of new technologies in materials science, biology, chemistry, medicine, and national security.



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➤ The Quantum Hamiltonian And Nuclear Energy States

The quantum mechanical operator associated with the total energy of a quantum system (nucleus in this case) is called the Hamiltonian. In classical mechanics, the system energy can be expressed as the sum of the kinetic and potential energies. For quantum mechanics, the elements of this energy expression are transformed into the corresponding quantum mechanical operators. The Hamiltonian contains the operations associated with the kinetic and potential energies. We will deduce the Hamitonian for a nucleus in this post.

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➤ Deducing The Mass Formula Of The Nucleus

There is more complexity to the mass formula of the nucleus than just a simple linear dependence on the total number of nucleons which are protons and neutrons. Readily at first , there seems to be the kinds of energies mentioned below that should play the key role:

Bulk energy
Surface energy
Pauli or Symmetry energy
Coulomb energy.

Each of these energies will be explained in this post.

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➤ Deeper Analysis Of The Nuclear Masses

Each nucleus has a (positive) charge \(Ze\), and integer number times the elementary charge \(e\). This follows from the fact that atoms are neutral

Nuclei of identical charge come in different masses, all approximate multiples of the “nucleon mass”. (Nucleon is the generic term for a neutron or proton, which have almost the same mass, \(m_p= 938.272 \text{MeV}/c^2\), \(m_n= \text{MeV}/c^2\).) Masses can easily be determined by analysing nuclei in a mass spectrograph which can be used to determine the relation between the charge \(Z\) (the number of protons, we believe) vs. the mass.

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➤ The Stability Of A Nucleus

Electrostatic repulsion and gravitational attraction between masses in the nucleus are two forces that act between nucleons (protons and neutrons). The magnitude of electrostatic repulsion between protons is much greater than the gravitational attraction between the nucleons. In fact, the gravitational attraction between nucleons is so small it can be disregarded in most calculations involving the forces between nucleons

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Quantum electrodynamics (QED), quantum field theory of the interactions of charged particles with the electromagnetic field. It describes mathematically not only all interactions of light with matter but also those of charged particles with one another. QED is a relativistic theory in that Albert Einstein’s theory of special relativity is built into each of its equations. Because the behaviour of atoms and molecules is primarily electromagnetic in nature, all of atomic physics can be considered a test laboratory for the theory. Some of the most precise tests of QED have been experiments dealing with the properties of subatomic particles known as muons. The magnetic moment of this type of particle has been shown to agree with the theory to nine significant digits. Agreement of such high accuracy makes QED one of the most successful physical theories so far devised.

QED rests on the idea that charged particles (e.g., electrons and positrons) interact by emitting and absorbing photons, the particles that transmit electromagnetic forces. These photons are “virtual”; that is, they cannot be seen or detected in any way because their existence violates the conservation of energy and momentum. The photon exchange is merely the “force” of the interaction, because interacting particles change their speed and direction of travel as they release or absorb the energy of a photon. Photons also can be emitted in a free state, in which case they may be observed as light or other forms of electromagnetic radiation.

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➤ Quantization Of The Hamiltonian Governing The Quantum Dynamics Of Electrons In An Electromagnetic Field

Consider a non-relativistic charged particle in an electromagnetic field. As this post is to address the physics of electrons interacting with electromagnetic fields, the electric charge of the particle is taken to be \(-e\), where \(e = 1.602\times10^{-19}\,\mathrm{C}\) is the elementary charge. To describe particles with an arbitrary electric charge \(q\), simply perform the substitution \(e \rightarrow -q\) in the formulas you will subsequently encounter.

The task is to formulate the Hamiltonian governing the quantum dynamics of such a particle, subject to two simplifying assumptions: (i) the particle has charge and mass but is otherwise “featureless” (i.e., the spin angular momentum and magnetic dipole moment that real electrons possess are ignored), and (ii) the electromagnetic field is treated as a classical field, meaning that the electric and magnetic fields are definite quantities rather than operators.

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➤ Hamiltonian To Calculate The Magnetic Moment Of Electrons Moving At The Speed Of Light

In the quantum physics field , it has been common to use \(p^2/2m\)-type Hamiltonians, which are limited to describing non-relativistic particles. In 1928, Paul Dirac formulated a Hamiltonian that can describe electrons moving close to the speed of light, thus successfully combining quantum theory with special relativity. Another triumph of Dirac’s theory is that it accurately predicts the magnetic moment of the electron.

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➤ Quantizing The Electromagnetic Field To Calculate Electrons - Photons Interactions

The process of quantizing a scalar boson field is achieved with the classical field being decomposed into normal modes, and each mode is quantized by assigning it an independent set of creation and annihilation operators. By comparing the oscillator energies in the classical and quantum regimes, we can derive the Hermitian operator corresponding to the classical field variable, expressed using the creation and annihilation operators. The same approach will be used with some minor adjustments, to quantize the electromagnetic field.

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➤ Carrier Particles & Electromagnetic Interactions On The Sub-Microscopic Scale In Quantum ElectroDynamics

Quantum Physics has discovered that there are only four distinct basic forces in all of nature. This is a remarkably small number considering the myriad phenomena they explain. Particle physics is intimately tied to these four forces. Certain fundamental particles, called carrier particles, carry these forces, and all particles can be classified according to which of the four forces they feel. The table given below summarizes important characteristics of the four basic forces.

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➤ Quantization Of The Lorentz Force Law

Consider a non-relativistic charged particle in an electromagnetic field. The main interest now is in the physics of electrons interacting with electromagnetic fields, so let us take the electric charge of the particle to be \(-e\), where \(e = 1.602\times10^{-19}\,\mathrm{C}\) is the elementary charge. To describe particles with an arbitrary electric charge \(q\), simply perform the substitution \(e \rightarrow -q\) in the formulas that will mentioned in this post.

It is important to formulate the Hamiltonian governing the quantum dynamics of such a particle, subject to two simplifying assumptions: (i) the particle has charge and mass but is otherwise “featureless” (i.e., the spin angular momentum and magnetic dipole moment that real electrons possess are ignored), and (ii) the electromagnetic field is treated as a classical field, meaning that the electric and magnetic fields are definite quantities rather than operators.

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Quantum chromodynamics, or QCD, as it is referred to in high-energy physics, is the quantum field theory that describes the strong interactions. It is the SU(3) gauge theory of the current standard model for elementary particles and forces, SU3 x SU2L X U1 , which encompasses the strong, electromagnetic, and weak interactions. The symmetry group of QCD, with its eight conserved charges, is referred to as color SU(3). As is characteristic of quantum field theories, each field may be described in terms of quantum waves or particles.

Because it is a gauge field theory, the fields that carry the forces of QCD transform as vectors under the Lorentz group. Corresponding to these vector fields are the particles called “gluons,” which carry an intrinsic angular momentum, or spin, of 1 in units of ℏ. The strong interactions are understood as the cumulative effects of gluons, interacting among themselves and with the quarks, the spin-1/2 particles of the Dirac quark fields.

There are six quark fields of varying masses in QCD. Of these, three are called “light” quarks, in a sense to be defined below, and three “heavy.” The light quarks are the up (u), down (d), and strange (s), while the heavy quarks are the charm (c), bottom (b), and top (t). Their well-known electric charges are ef=2e / 3u,c,t and ef-e / 3d,s,b , with e the positron charge. The gluons interact with each quark field in an identical fashion, and the relatively light masses of three of the quarks provide the theory with a number of approximate global symmetries that profoundly influence the manner in which QCD manifests itself in the standard model.

These quark and gluon fields and their corresponding particles are enumerated with complete confidence by the community of high-energy physicists. Yet, none of these particles has ever been observed in isolation, as one might observe a photon or an electron. Rather, all known strongly interacting particles are colorless; most are “mesons,” combinations with the quantum numbers of a quark q and a antiquark q' or “baryons” with the quantum numbers of (possibly distinct) combinations of three quarks qq' q". This feature of QCD, that its underlying fields never appear as asymptotic states, is called “confinement.” The very existence of confinement required new ways of thinking about field theory, and only with these, the discovery and development of QCD was possible.


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➤ Cosmological Inferences Of The Generation Model Of Particle Physics : New Paradigms For Mass And Gravity

The understanding of several cosmological problems that has been obtained from the development of the Generation Model (GM) of particle physics is presented. The GM is presented as a viable simpler alternative to the Standard Model (SM). The GM considers the elementary particles of the SM to be composite particles and this substructure leads to new paradigms for both mass and gravity, which in turn lead to an understanding of several cosmological problems: the matter-antimatter asymmetry of the universe, dark matter and dark energy.

The GM provides a unified origin of mass and the composite nature of the leptons and quarks of the GM leads to a solution of the cosmological matter-antimatter asymmetry problem. The GM also provides a new universal quantum theory of gravity in terms of a residual interaction of a strong color-like interaction, analogous to quantum chromodynamics (QCD). This very weak residual interaction has two important properties: antiscreening and finite range, that provide an understanding of dark matter and dark energy, respectively, in the universe.

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➤ Virtual Gluons In Interactions Between The Individual Quarks Leading To Electromagnetic Decay Processes Of Hadrons

According to the standard model , all known particles are either fundamental point particles or are composed of fundamental point particles according to a remarkably small set of rules. Just as atoms are bound states of atomic nuclei and electrons, atomic nuclei are bound states of protons and neutrons. This post delves one step deeper in the heirarchy of the universe. In the particle physics world , it is considered that all hadrons are actually bound states of fundamental spin 1/2 particles called quarks. Whereas all other known charged particles have an electric charge equal to an integer multiple of \(\pm \mathrm{e}\) where e is the proton charge, quarks have electric charges equal to either \(\text { -e / } 3 \text { or }+2 e / 3\). Leptons themselves are considered to be fundamental, so the leptons and the quarks form the basic building blocks of all matter in the universe


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➤ Chromo Dynamics - Elementary Particles & Quark-Gluon Plasma

In particle physics, it was found out (or realized) that hadrons are not elementary particles but are made of particles called quarks. (The name ‘quark’ was coined by the physicist Murray Gell-Mann, from a phrase in the James Joyce novel Finnegans Wake.) Initially, it was believed there were only three types of quarks, called up (u), down (d), and strange (s). However, this number soon grew to six—interestingly, the same as the number of leptons—to include charmed (c), bottom (b), and top (t).

All quarks are spin-half fermions \((s = 1/2)\), have a fractional charge \((1/3\) or \(2/3 e)\), and have baryon number \(B = 1/3\). Each quark has an antiquark with the same mass but opposite charge and baryon number.

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➤ Particle Accelerators And Colliders - Some Key Novelties In Accelerator Technology

Accelerators are devices that may repel charged particles such as protons and electrons near the speed of light. The charged particles are collided either on targets or towards other particles in the opposite directions. Accelerators utilize electromagnetic fields to accelerate the charged particles, and radio-frequency cavities increase the particle beams as magnet in accelerators focus the beams and curves to their trajectory.

There are significant properties of an accelerator according to the aim of usage, e.g., the energy of collisions and type of particles. Therefore, the number of accelerators in operation around the world exceed 30,000. It is obvious that the need of understanding the nature and determination of nature’s laws in the subatomic dimension have been provided by accelerators especially in particle physics, because the developments in particle accelerators and particle detectors ensure attractive opportunities for great scientific advances.

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Quantum gravity seeks to describe gravity according to the principles of quantum mechanics.

The theory of relativity, which applies at the biggest sizes, and the quantum theory, which describes physics at the lowest scales (atoms and subatomic particles), are currently the two fundamental branches of our understanding of nature (gravity, space, and time). With a single set of guiding principles, quantum gravity aims to integrate these various domains into a single account of nature.

Loop quantum gravity, spin foam models, string theory, causal set theory, shape dynamics, twistor theory, and asymptotic safety are just a few methods that researchers use to tackle this problem. Additionally, they look for techniques to experimentally verify and test theories about quantum gravity. There are connections between quantum gravity and other research fields like cosmology, general relativity, particle physics, and other quantum theories .



➤ Quantum Gravity - An Inherent And Integral Component Of The Space

Gravity: Is it quantum?
In physics' long journey toward a theory of everything, the continuous quest for the graviton-the postulated fundamental particle conveying gravitational force-is an essential step.
Except for gravity, all known fundamental forces in the universe are known to obey the laws of quantum mechanics. Researchers would make a huge step toward a "theory of everything" that might completely describe the functioning of the cosmos from basic principles if they could integrate gravity into quantum mechanics. Finding the graviton, a long-proposed fundamental particle of gravity, is an essential first step in the effort to determine whether gravity is quantum. Physics researchers are now focusing on studies using minuscule superconductors, free-falling crystals, and the aftermath of the big bang in their quest to discover the graviton.

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Quantum Gravity May Be Able To Resolve The Proton Radius Puzzle

A proton's official radius is 0.88±0.01 femtometers (fm, or 10-15m). Both hydrogen spectroscopy and electron scattering tests, in which an electron beam is fired at a proton and the way the electrons scatter is used to quantify the proton's size, were utilised by the researchers to arrive at that value.
However, recently when scientists attempted to further increase the accuracy of the proton radius value using a third experimental technique, they obtained a value of 0.842±0.001 fm, which was 7 deviations off from the official value. Instead of using atomic hydrogen, which has an electron orbiting the proton, these tests used muonic hydrogen, in which a negatively charged muon orbits the proton. A muon can more precisely estimate the proton size since it orbits a proton closer than an electron because it is 200 times heavier than an electron.

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➤ How Large Structures In The Universe And Anomalies In The Cmb (Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation) Could Be Linked Together By Loop Quantum Gravity

The LCDM (Lambda cold dark matter) model best describes our universe. That is an expanding cosmos containing dense clusters of cold dark matter and dark energy (Lambda) (CDM). Regular matter, which makes up planets, stars, and ourselves, is also strewn throughout the universe, although it only accounts for around 4% of it. The CDM (cold dark matter) model performs remarkably well because, while not knowing what dark matter and dark energy are, Currently scientists do know how they act. There is only one minor issue.
The Hubble Constant, which measures how quickly the universe is expanding, and the baryon density parameter, which specifies the scale at which galaxies cluster together, are just two of the factors that define the LCDM. These parameters have been measured by numerous different experiments, and the results slightly diverge. For instance, the Hubble Constant obtained from studies of far-off galaxies is larger than the value obtained from the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB). In the LCDM model, these differences are referred to as tensions. It is perhaps the biggest issue facing contemporary cosmology.

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➤ Quantum Gravity In The Context Of Quantum Mechanics - The High-Energy Physics Of Space,Time,Matter And Energy

The general theory of relativity is a stunning revealation to the world. Ever since it was proposed, scientists all over the world have worked hard to prove, refine, and extend this most stunning theory of gravity and spacetime.
Numerous observations that have been performed up till now have confirmed the aspects of the general theory of relativity , including those of gravitational lensing, redshift, changes in planetary orbits, and more recently, gravitational waves and black hole observations.
Despite our progress in observing gravity's more obvious macro impacts, there is still a gap - nay, a chasm - in our comprehension of gravity in relation to another important discovery: quantum mechanics, the study of matter and energy at their tiniest scales.

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Quantum optics is the study and application of the quantum interactions of light with matter and is an active and expanding field of experiment and theory. Progress in the development of light sources and detection techniques since the early 1980s has allowed increasingly sophisticated optical tests of the foundations of quantum mechanics. Basic quantum effects such as single photon interference and entangled states of two or more photons with highly correlated properties (such as polarization direction) have been generated with Quantum Optics. So it is a phenomenal science in probing the fundamental issues of nonlocality and entanglement in quantum mechanics . Novel technological applications of quantum optics are being develped including quantum cryptography and quantum computing.

We usually think that light is the optical (or visible) part of the electromagnetic spectrum, and matter is atoms. However, modern quantum optics covers a vast variety of systems, including superconducting circuits, confined electrons, excitons in semiconductors, defects in solid state, or the center-of-mass motion of micro-, meso-, and macroscopic systems. Moreover, quantum optics is at the heart of the field of quantum information. The ideas and experiments developed in quantum optics have also allowed scientists to refine solutions for the many-body problems and even high-energy physics. So Quantum optics is a research area that no future researcher in quantum physics can miss.


New Quantum Networking Hardware

Researchers have shown that individual atoms in a thin crystalline slab can be resolved and individually controlled using light of a precisely adjusted color. This will enable the exchange of quantum information between them in order to create extended quantum networks. The work done in this research has been featured on the cover of Science Advances.

The realization of global quantum networks, in which remote carriers of quantum information (called “qubits”) are connected by light in optical fibers, is among the most intensely pursued research goals in quantum technology. To implement such a network, one requires efficient interactions between the qubits and individual particles of light. These can be realized in a similar way as one would foster interactions between people: The idea is to confine them to a small region of space – the smaller, the better – and to force them to stay long – the longer, the better.

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Laser-Driven Radiation: Biomarkers For Molecular Imaging Of High Dose-Rate Effects

Recently developed short-pulsed laser sources garner high dose-rate beams such as energetic ions and electrons, x rays, and gamma rays. The biological effects of laser-generated ion beams observed in recent studies are different from those triggered by radiation generated using classical accelerators or sources, and this difference can be used to develop new strategies for cancer radiotherapy. High-power lasers can now deliver particles in doses of up to several Gy within nanoseconds. The fast interaction of laser-generated particles with cells alters cell viability via distinct molecular pathways compared to traditional, prolonged radiation exposure. The emerging consensus of recent literature is that the differences are due to the timescales on which reactive molecules are generated and persist, in various forms.

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➤ Quantum-Coherent, Magnetic-Field-Sensitive And Graphene-Derived Superconducting Material

The first quantum coherent and magnetic field-sensitive superconducting component has been created from graphene by scientists. This event paves way for creating intriguing opportunities in the field of superconducting technologies .

Scientists produced two-dimensional crystals with just one layer of carbon atoms several decades ago. This substance, now known as graphene, has had a long and successful career of usage. Today, graphene is utilised to reinforce things like tennis rackets, vehicle tyres, and aeroplane wings because of its extraordinary strength. However, it is also a fascinating topic for basic research because physicists are constantly finding new, astounding phenomena that haven't been seen in other materials.

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➤ Transfer Of Molecular Energy Driven By Laser-Light

By using ultrashort laser pulses to cause the atoms of molecules in a solution to vibrate, scientists have developed a precise understanding of the dynamics of energy transfer that occur during the process.

Light strikes molecules, is absorbed, and then reemitted. The level of detail in investigations of such light-matter interactions has continually increased because to developments in ultrafast laser technology. Even more in-depth information is now available through FRS, a technique for laser spectroscopy in which the electric field of pulses that repeat millions of times per second is captured with time resolution after passing through the sample: For the first time in theory and experiment, scientists have shown how molecules gradually absorb the energy of the ultrashort light pulse in each individual optical cycle, then release it again over a longer period of time, converting it into spectroscopically significant light. The research clarifies the fundamental mechanics governing this energy transfer. Additionally, it creates and validates a thorough quantum chemistry model that will be utilised later on to quantitatively anticipate even the slightest departures from linear behaviour.

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➤ Entangled Photons For Quantum Computers And Secure Transmission

Physicists in the field of quantum optics have successfully and precisely entangled more than a dozen photons. As a result, they are laying the groundwork for a novel class of quantum computer.

A higher quantity of specifically prepared, or, to use the technical word, entangled, basic building blocks are required to perform computing operations on a quantum computer. Now, physicists have successfully accomplished this feat using photons released by a single atom for the first time. The researchers created up to 14 entangled photons in an optical resonator using a unique technique, which can be produced into particular quantum physical states with great precision and efficiency. The novel approach might aid in the future safe data transfer of quantum computers, which are strong,powerful,more efficient computing systems compared to their classical counterparts.

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The term "quantum computing" refers to a system that computes outputs using quantum mechanics. The tiniest discrete unit of any physical attribute is known in physics as a quantum. The majority of the time, it alludes to the characteristics of atomic or subatomic particles like electrons, neutrinos, and photons.

The fundamental piece of information in quantum computing is a qubit. Although they function similarly to bits in classical computing, qubits exhibit completely distinct behaviour. Unlike qubits, which can store a superposition of all possible states, traditional bits are binary and can only keep a position of 0 or 1.

Quantum computing uses the peculiar properties of quantum physics, such as superposition, entanglement, and quantum interference. This adds fresh ideas to conventional programming techniques.



➤ The Enigmatic "Fifth State" Of Matter, Bose-Einstein Condensate,Created From Quasiparticles

The first quasiparticle-based Bose-Einstein condensate, or the enigmatic "fifth state" of matter, has been produced by physicists. Although these things aren't considered elementary particles, they can still exhibit characteristics of elementary particles like charge and spin. It has recently been discovered that they can experience Bose-Einstein condensation in the same way as actual particles. This was previously unknown. The discovery is expected to have a substantial effect on the advancement of quantum technology, such as quantum computing. The procedure for making the substance, accomplished at temperatures only a hair's breadth from absolute zero, was described in a report that was published in Nature Communications. Bose-Einstein condensates, together with solids, liquids, gases, and plasmas, are frequently referred to as the fifth state of matter. Bose-Einstein condensates, or BECs, were theoretically predicted in the early 20th century but weren't actually made in a lab until 1995. They are also maybe the most peculiar kind of matter, and science still doesn't fully understand them.



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➤ Physicists Investigate Unusual States Of Matter Using Quantum Simulation Technologies

A researcher (Iadecola) at Iowa State University patiently explained digital quantum simulation, Floquet systems, and symmetry-protected topological phases as he worked through the title of the most recent research publication that contains his theoretical and analytical work. His explanations of nonequilibrium systems, time crystals, 2T periodicity, and the 2016 Nobel Prize in Physics followed. Iadecola's area of quantum condensed matter physics, which examines how collections of atoms and subatomic particles give rise to states of matter, can be paradoxical and necessitate explanations at nearly every step. The bottom line is that scientists are learning more and more about exotic matter, "an uncharted universe where matter can adopt unusual properties," as the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences put it while awarding the 2016 physics prize to David Thouless, Duncan Haldane, and Michael Kosterlitz.



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Researchers Employ Quantum Computers To Model Quantum Materials

Scientists reach a significant milestone in improving the efficiency of quantum computing.
By enabling computations that were previously thought to be impossible, quantum computers have the potential to change science. But there is still much work to be done and a lot of difficult tests to pass before quantum computers are a commonplace reality.
One test involves simulating the characteristics of materials for upcoming quantum technologies using quantum computers.
Researchers at the University of Chicago and the Argonne National Laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) have carried out quantum simulations of spin defects, which are particular imperfections in materials that could provide a viable foundation for new quantum technologies. By adjusting the noise generated by the quantum hardware, the study increased the precision of calculations performed on quantum computers.



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The quantum consciousness model explains that our consciousness is nonlocal and that our consciousness creates our perceived reality by interpreting vibrating energy. The quantum consciousness paradigm explains that there is no present, future, and past but only a constant present. The quantum mind is responsible for the paradigms being constantly renewed because the level of consciousness in the human is growing, awakening, and evolving. The mind is a product of the manifestation of who we are, uses the analog of computer hardware called the brain (three-dimensional manifestation) to be able to interact in the third dimension.

The evidence for the important roles that quantum ideas like complementarity, entanglement, dispersive states, and non-Boolean logic play in mental processes is growing now in the study of consciousness. While utilising formal aspects found in quantum physics, corresponding quantum-based approaches handle primarily mental (psychological) phenomena utilising some of the concepts of quantum mechanics or quantum field theory. This new field of study has been given the name "quantum cognition or quantum consciousness." The phrase "non-commutative structures in cognition" would be a better description.




A Theory Of Consciousness

Both consciousness and quantum phenomenon are subjective and indeterministic. In this post, we propose consciousness is a quantum phenomenon. A quantum theory of consciousness (QTOC) is presented based on a new interpretation of quantum physics. We show that this QTOC can address the mind and body problem, the hard problem of consciousness.

It also provides a physics foundation and mathematical formulation to study consciousness and neural network. We demonstrate how to apply it to develop and extend various models of consciousness. We show the predictions from this theory about the existence of a universal quantum vibrational field and the large-scale, nearly instantaneous synchrony of brainwaves among different parts of brain, body, people, and objects.

The correlation between Schumann Resonances and some brainwaves is explained. Recent progress in quantum information theory, especially regarding quantum entanglement and quantum error correction code, is applied to study memory and shed new light in neuroscience

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Scientists Suggest The Universe Is Created By Simulating Self-Consciousness

According to a novel theory, the cosmos is conscious and self-repeats in "endless iterations". According to a report from the Quantum Gravity Research Institute, there may be a panconsciousness at work. Insight from quantum mechanics and a non-materialistic viewpoint are combined in this study.

The fact that this new theory expressly embraces "panconsciousness" and non-materialism is undoubtedly its most important component.
It can therefore be compared to more recent theories of consciousness that explicitly embrace panpsychism.
Surprisingly, non-materialist theories of consciousness are becoming more accepted in the scientific community. Is that because materialist theories of consciousness don't offer many new insights and lead to ludicrous conclusions, or is there another explanation? At this time, it would be difficult to say.
What if there are no sophisticated beings either and everything in "reality" is a self-simulation that arises from pure thought? This is the idea put out with a new hypothesis by researchers.

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Our Brains Use Quantum Computation - A Startling Experiment Shows

Using a notion created to demonstrate the presence of quantum gravity and modifying it to investigate the functioning of the human brain, scientists now believe that our brains may be capable of using quantum computation. The discovery could provide insight into consciousness, whose functioning is still not well understood by science. Another reason why humans still outperform supercomputers in unpredictable situations, decision-making, or learning new things may be due to quantum brain processes.

Researchers believe that human brains could use quantum computation after repurposing an idea created to demonstrate the existence of quantum gravity to investigate the human brain and its functions.

The performance of short-term memory and conscious awareness were also connected with the brain processes that were tested in the experiment. This shows that cognitive and conscious brain activities are also influenced by quantum processes.

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An Intelligent Material That Learns By Physically Changing Itself: The First Steps Toward A Quantum Brain

A new generation of computers might be built on a type of sentient material that learns by physically altering itself, much like the human brain does. In their pursuit of this alleged "quantum brain," Radboud researchers have made a significant advancement. They have shown that they can organise and connect a network of single atoms, as well as imitate the independent actions of neurons and synapses in the brain. In Nature Nanotechnology, they publish a report on their discovery.

A growing number of data centres are required to meet the rising demand for computing power on a worldwide scale, each of which has an escalating energy footprint. According to the researchers , it is obvious that there is a need to develop new methods to store and analyse data in an energy-efficient manner.

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The study of phenomena like fundamental vision and photosynthetic processes as well as bird navigation have all been extensively studied in the realm of quantum biology during the past ten years. In theory, research into quantum effects in intricate biological systems dates back to the infancy of quantum physics. But it hasn't really gained prominence as an idea that can be tested scientifically until recently. The dispute has broad implications, but for here in this post, The focus is on the area of research where direct experimental evaluations of alleged quantum effects are most feasible-photosynthetic light harvesting.

For example Photosynthesis is a highly tuned quantum biology process from which important insights into the guiding principles of nature can be gained. Energy transfer that operates efficiently close to theoretical quantum limits constitutes its fundamental steps. The idea that quantum coherences are employed by nature to control energy transmission recently served as the inspiration for a lot of study. The interpretation of small-amplitude oscillations in the two-dimensional electronic spectra of photosynthetic complexes is the basis of this body of work, a cornerstone for the study of quantum biology. This review examines new research that has reexamined these assertions and shows that interexciton coherences are too brief to be of any practical use in the transfer of photosynthetic energy. Instead, the impulsively generated vibrations that are typically seen in femtosecond spectroscopy are the source of the long-lived coherences that are recorded.

As of now, enzyme catalysis, photosynthesis and avian navigation have been quantum biology's most popular applications. Others are surely in the offing: researchers around the world are already looking for the quantum underpinnings of smell, the origin of consciousness and (speculatively) the origin of life itself. At the same time, they are also asking themselves if quantum effects are regular features of these systems or if nature actively uses them to improve how things are done.



Researchers In Quantum Biology Found A Cell-Wide Web That Is Used For Message Transmission Within Cells

Until recently, it was thought that the many organs and components within a cell float in the cytoplasm. Scientists believed that waves were used to transmit messages between cells. This paradigm is rapidly altering, though, research over the years is invaluable in that it identified a cell-wide web, a network of communication made of guide wires that transmits messages over nanoscale distances.

According to researchers, this indicates that each cell contains a circuit board, however it is not set in place like a computer board. Instead, they undergo rewiring to alter how the cells behave. According to them, there is a vast network of guide wires that direct charged molecules that convey information between various organs and other cytoplasmic structures. These motions at the nanoscale have significant effects. This is how commands to flex or relax muscles are transmitted, for instance. These signals eventually make it to the nucleus, which houses the genetic material that controls which genes are expressed. The entire behaviour of the cell is altered as a result.

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Quantum Biology : Algae Have Evolved The Ability To Turn On And Off Quantum Coherence

Researchers in the field of Quantum Biology have figured out how algae that can tolerate very little light can turn on and off a peculiar quantum process that takes place during photosynthesis. It is not known how this quantum phenomenon, known as coherence, affects algae, although it is theorised that it might increase how effectively they use solar energy.

Understanding its function in a living thing could result in new technological developments like improved organic solar cells and quantum-based electronics.

The research has been released in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences journal.
It is a component of a developing area called quantum biology, where there is mounting evidence that quantum phenomena exist outside of the lab and may even explain how birds may use the earth's magnetic field for navigation.

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Quantum Biology Design Concepts May Pave The Way For New Solar Technology

Quantum Biology researchers have developed a synthetic substance that resembles the intricate quantum dynamics seen in photosynthesis and could open up entirely new paths for developing solar energy systems. The researchers write in the Science Express that it is not only possible but also simpler than anyone anticipated to incorporate quantum effects into artificial light-harvesting systems.

Small compounds that support persistent quantum coherences have been engineered by the researchers.
Coherences are quantum superpositions' macroscopically visible activity. Superpositions, when a single quantum particle, such as an electron, occupies more than one state concurrently, are a fundamental idea in quantum mechanics that are illustrated by the famous Schrodinger's Cat thought experiment.

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On Quantum Physics



Quantum Physics thus reveals the basic oneness of the universe - Erwin Schrödinger

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